The Merv Oasis: Travels and Adventures
East of the Caspian During the Years 1879-80-81,
Including Five Months' Residence Among
the Tekkes of Merv
By Edmund O'Donovan
Published by G. P. Putnam's sons, 1883 Volume II
Chapter 39
CLAN
SYSTEM. Page 159
CHAPTER
XXXIX.
GOVERNMENT
AND HISTORY OF MERV.
Clan
system - Tribes and subdivisions - The Toktamish and
Otamish tribes - Yaps or clans - Names of Merv clans -
Distinctive clan dress arrangement* - The Khans of the
tribes - Kethkodas of the clans - Administration of law -
Punishments - Supreme council of the nation - Honorary
titles - Serdars and Bahadurs - War chiefs - Serdar Tokme
- The national militia - Yassaouls or police - Public
revenues - Roads and bridges - The new gendarmerie -
Military discipline - Plunder and police - Tekke ideas of
enforcing the law - Dislike of walls - The villages of
the oasis - Porsa Kala - The Turkmen
migration - Turks and Turkmen
- Fortunes of the present Mervli -
Settlement on the Tejun -
Removal to Sarakhs - Destruction of Bairam Ali (Old Merv) - Saryk
colonization - The Persian war against the Tekkes -
Tekke conquest of Merv
- Persian invasion - Its repulse - Distinguished
prisoners - A long captivity - Sarakhs and Salor
- Ersari Turkmen
- Turkmen
informants - The Russians and Merv.
The
constitution of the Turkmen tribes inhabiting Merv is essentially
the clan system, much resembling that of the Scotch
Highlanders before Culloden. There are two tribes in the
nation - the Toktamish, on the eastern bank of the river,
and the Otamish, on the western. The Toktamish is the
most numerous and also the senior tribe, but its
precedence over the western division is purely honorary.
Kouchid Khan, who commanded the whole nation during its
migration to Merv,
and in the subsequent war with Persia, was hereditary
chief of the Toktamish. On his death, however, his son
Baba Khan succeeded to the headship of the Toktamish
tribe only, a position which he held during my visit to Merv. His personal
character was not sufficiently distinguished for the Turkmen
to continue his
Page
160 TURKMEN TRIBES.
father's
authority in him, and the Otamish Khan successfully
asserted his claim to equality in the government. Kouchid
Khan's name is still potent among the people of Merv, and their new
fortress bears his name. The Toktamish and Otamish tribes
are subdivided into four sections, with sub- chiefs over
each, and still further into twenty-four yaps or
clans.
The
following table will indicate at a glance the divisions
and subdivisions of the Tekkes
east and west of the Murgab:
These
names may have some philological value, so I have taken
pains to ascertain them as accurately as possible. In Merv itself the
distinction between the clans is kept up with the utmost
formality. Personally I never could discover the
difference between them, but the Turkmen
had no difficulty in telling to what clan a man belonged
at first
CLAN
GOVERNMENT OF MERV.
Page 161
sight.
On asking once how the distinction was marked - for to my
eye there was nothing in the dress, like the Highland
tartan colors, to distinguish the wearers - a native
pointed out that a peculiar way of knotting the sash and
wearing the hat always indicated a member of the Sultan
Aziz clan, a peculiar tie of the sword belt one of the
Burkoz, and other minute points of dress the members of
the other clans. My eye could never be sufficiently
trained to tell a man's clan at first sight by the cock
of his hat, or the tie of his sash; but my Turkmen
friends never erred in the matter, which is a somewhat
important one in their society. Each clan is presided
over by a hereditary chief, or Kethkoda, who claims
relationship in a distant way with the Khan of the tribe.
There are also Kethkodas of higher rank over the
subdivisions of the tribes. The Kethkodas administer the
government of their clans, such as it is, and
occasionally act as judges, though such functions more
properly belong to the Cadis, or judges learned in the
law. The Cadis are simply men who have studied the Koran
and are familiar with its legal precepts. The Khans or
Kethkodas appoint them judges, and the more intricate
questions, especially those relating to the caravans and
trade, are generally submitted to them, while the chiefs
try such cases as can be decided without any profound
legal knowledge. On bazaar days the Khan in person
usually administers justice in public, and often inflicts
summary punishment with his stick. For neglect of public
duties, for instance, such as not working due time on the
fortifications, fines are imposed, and if the offender
cannot pay, his hat is taken off, his hands bound to his
sides, and he is exposed in this condition to the sun for
an hour or two. Thieves are tied to a stake, and their
heads similarly exposed. Occasionally the punishments are
much heavier, and are inflicted without respect of
persons. Thus, shortly after my arrival, a son of Kadjar
Khan was Vol. n. H
Page
162 PUNISHMENTS - GENERAL COUNCIL.
sentenced
by his father to be tied to a stake for forty- eight
hours for aiding the escape of a prisoner, a Circassian
officer in the Russian service. The penalty of the
bastinado, so common in Persia, is unknown in Merv. Quarrels
between individuals are rare, and are seldom brought
before either Khan or Cadi, being settled by a blow or a
stab on the spot. Even in cases of murder no steps are
taken to punish the assassin, except on the demand of the
wife or nearest male relative of the murdered man.
The
Kethkodas are usually wealthy in Socks, and indeed
require to be so, as they receive no contributions from
their clansmen. Strangers are usually entertained by the
Kethkoda, who expects, however, in return, a present of
at least double the worth of his food, usually curdled
camel's milk, mutton fat, and griddled bread, if the
visitor be at all well off. I must admit, however, that
mendicants who are unable to pay are equally well
received, but for others the Turkmen
hospitality is decidedly venal. The twenty- four
Kethkodas presided over by the two Khans, and assisted by
a number of the Ak-Saghal, or grey-beards of the
clans, men of position and experience, who are called by
a sort of public opinion, constitute the medjlis, or
great council of the nation. This body is convoked to
decide on grave questions of national policy, such as
that of taking measures to resist the Russians at the
time of my arrival. The question what to do with myself
was also submitted to the great council. The Khans and
the four Kethkodas of the great sub-divisions of the
tribes constitute the executive of the government, and
hold privy councils for their own guidance, to which the
public are not admitted. At the great council everything
is conducted in genuine Homeric style, without any
attempt at privacy.
The
title of Khan is given, as a matter of courtesy, to many
of the descendants of former Khans who possess no
KHANS
AND SERDARS. Page 163
power
in the state. The Kethkodas are not addressed by that
title, however. The personal title of ' Serdar ' is also
given to certain men, Kethkodas, and simple clansmen who
have shown considerable military skill in the field. The
title is purely honorary, and the incessant raids, in
which the people of Merv,
like their brethren, the Akhal Tekkes,
were constantly engaged, gave plenty of opportunities to
adventurous spirits for winning their spurs as Serdars. A
man who had won renown as a brave warrior only, without
pretensions to skill as a commander, was styled a Bahadur,
or as it is pronounced in Jagatai, batur. The
Serdars formed a class somewhat like officers en
disponibilite in Europe, from which the council could
select commanders in case of war. If the Khan was
competent he would naturally command the national forces
in virtue of his office, but should he be from age or
other causes incapable of acting as general, a temporary
military chief would be chosen by the council from the
Serdars. If the Khan's incapacity should be very marked,
he would even be deposed on such an occasion from the
Khanate, and his nearest competent relative elected. A
similar custom prevails among the other branches of the Turkmen,
as well as in Merv.
Thus, during the war between Russia and the Akhal Tekkes,
the hereditary Khan, Makdum Kuli, had nominal command of
the forces, but the active operations outside the walls
of Geok Tepe
were conducted by Tokme Serdar, who possessed no
hereditary rank, but was chosen general in virtue of his
known military skill. His position with reference to
Makdum Kuli Khan was much the same as General Moltke's in
relation to the Emperor William in the Franco-Prussian
war. Subsequently to the fall of Geok Tepe, Tokme
Serdar made his submission to the Russians, and went to St.
Petersburg to lay his sword at the feet of the Czar.
Permanent fidelity to any cause, even a national one, is
a very rare quality indeed
Page
164 PUBLIC ORGANISATION.
among
the Turkmen,
and I was little surprised at the news of the Serdar's
defection from the ranks of his countrymen. Makdum Kuli
Khan, however, seemed to feel his conduct keenly, and,
while praising highly the abilities of his former
lieutenant, he expressed deep regret that he should have
disgraced his fame by swearing allegiance to the Ak-Padishah,
White Czar.
In
time of war every able-bodied man is called out for
service, either in the field or on the fortifications, by
the council. As the whole population is trained to arms
there is no difficulty in raising a large force, but
there are no officers except the fighting general or the
Kethkodas, and no gradations of military rank. This want
of organization is fatal to the efficiency of the Merv forces in
anything like a prolonged campaign, especially against
European troops. The lack of officers is partly
compensated by the individual training of the men in
military exercises and the use of arms. Behind their
fortifications they can fight desperately, and as
skirmishers on the flanks of a line of march their
activity and personal daring make them formidable
enemies, but they are wholly incapable of carrying out
the complicated operations of a regular campaign. They
can harass and impede an enemy's plan of action, but they
cannot devise, or at least carry out, one of their own.
The only thing like a standing army in Merv when I arrived
there was a sort of police force of a thousand horsemen,
under the command of two officers, styled the Yassaoul-bashis.
To them was entrusted the execution of the orders of
the council, and also the duty of providing escorts for
the caravans coming to Merv from Bokhara
and Meshed.
Taxes
and a public treasury were institutions unknown in Merv at the period
of my visit. The traders in the bazaar used to assess
themselves to pay for the needful repairs of the
market-place and the roads and bridges
TAXES-YASSAOULS.
Page 165
adjoining
the oasis. These bridges are merely tree trunks thrown
across the streams and covered with earth and reeds. A
small tax was levied on the Jews who used the stalls, and
applied to the same purposes. The police expenses were
paid by a tax of twenty-five krans on each camel load,
and ten on each horse or mule load of merchandise passing
through the territory of Merv. Otherwise
there were no public burthens at the time of my visit,
beyond the compulsory service in time of war, and the corvees
for their fortifications. The chiefs lived on their
private property without any contributions from their
clansmen. Indeed, fixed contributions of any kind seem
altogether foreign to Turkmen
notions. Even when other tribes were held in absolute
subjection, as the Salor
were by Merv, no
tribute was exacted from them. They were held to obey the
orders of the council with regard to their movements, but
no impost was levied on them.
With
regard to the police force, an important change in its
numbers and duties was made subsequently to my arrival,
and mainly in consequence of my representations to the
council, and, in private interviews, to the Khans. Its
numbers were increased to two thousand, who were ordered
to hold themselves in constant readiness at the orders of
the Yassaoul-bashis, Yaghmour Khan and Ana Murad Kafur.
Yaghmour Khan was one of the few honest men in the place;
and, though descended from a family of ancient
distinction, was quite poor. He was continued in command
of one of the new bodies of yassaouls, or police.
The etymology of this word is characteristic. ' Yass' is
the verb ' beat,' and ' aoul' means a village. So that
policeman, in Jagatai, means literally' Beat the
village.' The duties of the new force, however, were not
intended to be of the aggressive character implied by
their Turkmen
name. I had represented so forcibly to the council the
necessity of
Page
166 THE NEW POLICE.
suppressing
private raids, that orders were issued against the
time-honored practice, and the yassaouls were to
hold themselves in readiness to enforce those orders in
case of any violation being attempted. The manner in
which the force was raised was somewhat strange to
Western ideas. Two thousand men were named by the Khans,
and ordered to move their houses and families to a place
between the loop of the river and the new fortress. House
moving in Merv,
though it must be understood in a literal sense, is not
such a formidable undertaking as a flitting in Europe.
The aladjaks are dismounted, and packed with all
their contents on camels' backs in the course of an hour,
being set up again on their new sites in the same time. A
couple of camels are sufficient to convey the lares and
penates of a Turkmen,
with the house itself included. There was no delay in
obeying the Khan's orders, and the ' new police' town
sprang up as if by magic under the walls of the fortress.
Every member of it was ordered to keep his house and
himself in readiness to start on duty at a moment's
notice, when summoned by the Yassaoul-bashi. These calls
were pretty frequent from the first, and were obeyed with
the utmost promptitude, whether by day or night. The
voice of the public crier had no sooner announced the
orders of the chief than the men were up and in the
saddle, armed from head to foot, and ready to start in
any direction in pursuit of the violators of the public
peace. To insure their efficiency, public inspections
were held by the Yassaoul-bashi every month, and any man
who had no horse was fined fifteen krans. Three were so
fined at the first inspection, but subsequently the
necessity of keeping themselves provided with horses or
quitting the force seemed to be understood well enough.
The police received pay, the tax on the caravans being
appropriated to that purpose, and a small sum was also
exacted from the owners of stolen
RAIDS.
Page 167
property,
when recovered by the exertions of the police. Plundering
expeditions, being of every-day occurrence, proved a
fruitful source of income to the yassaouls, and
brought home to their minds at least the advantages of
acting in the name of law and order. Public opinion,
however, was by no means so unanimous on the subject, as
raiding and raiders were time-honored institutions in Merv, and the
sympathies of the populace with the bold plunderers were
not diminished in the least by the admitted expediency of
putting a stop to their pursuits. Even Baba Khan, the
senior chief of Merv,
was by no means inclined to look with a severe eye on
raids. I suggested that raiders should be made to pay the
fines, but the idea was not apparently relished by
anybody. The yassaouls preferred rather to have
their pay secured by the booty itself than to take the
chance of getting it out of plunderers who might be hard
to catch.
In
justice to the people of Merv it must not be
forgotten that raids, even among members of the same
tribe, are not, or were not until lately, looked upon in
the light of robbery. It is not supposed they are
altogether legitimate, but still, if they are executed
with ability, admiration for the ' smartness' displayed
quite overpowers any moral reprobation that may be felt
for the act. In other
matters the Tekkes are not altogether devoid of notions
of honesty. Petty stealing is very rare among the
grown men, and even wild marauders will readily bow to
the decision of a Cadi on a legal question of their
rights. The instinctive feeling of the necessity of some
sort of law is very marked among these nomads, though in
certain points of conduct they do not see the need of its
application, as in this matter of raiding on then:
neighbors' flocks. When we remember the authorization of
thefts by the old Spartan laws, and even the practices on
the English and Scottish borders less than
Page
168 MERV
SETTLEMENTS.
three
centuries ago, we should not
judge too harshly of the raiding propensities of the
Tekkes.
A
marked feature of the Tekke character is the
unwillingness to reside in towns. The present settlements
in Merv are only
villages of aladjaks, and even the strong
defensive position of the former town of the Saryk,
Porsa Kala, was not sufficient inducement to make the
newcomers take up their abode there. They made an
encampment or village within a short distance of its
walls, and close to the dam of the Murgab, but this
place, Benti, contains only about seven hundred houses.
Other villages are scattered about in the spaces between
the irrigating canals, but none has any pretensions to be
the successor of ancient Merv, the Queen of
the World, as the city was styled in its palmy days.
Porsa Kala itself was more of a city than any of the
Tekke settlements, and probably contained ten or twelve
thousand inhabitants. Some
writers seem to speak of it vaguely, as if it were still
the capital, so little are the changes of position among
the Turkmen tribes known in Europe. A short sketch of
recent history may serve to remove this ambiguity.
The present inhabitants
of Merv are comparatively recent immigrants, and
indeed the whole Turkmen
population of these countries has been only a short time
in its present seats. I endeavored during my stay in Merv to collect all
the information I could on the history of these nomads,
which is naturally very obscure, owing to the unsettled
nature of their lives. One tribe succeeds another easily
among the nomads, and the population of a district is
often completely changed in the course of a few years ;
and as there is no written history of these movements, it
is only by the utmost diligence in cross-examining the
most intelligent natives and then comparing their
statements carefully that anything like an accurate
notion of them
Tekke
History. Page 169
can
be formed. Like most
uncivilized nations, the Turkmen can lay but little claim
to accuracy in their stories of past events, and
chronological exactness they pay scarcely any attention
to. However, I had frequent opportunities of consulting
the most intelligent elders of Merv, many of whom
had taken an active part in the events of the last
half-century, and remembered them vividly, while they
also recollected clearly the traditions of older
movements that had been handed down by their fathers.
From all that I could learn thus, it appears that the country
now occupied by the Merv and Akhal Tekkes was peopled
a hundred and fifty years ago by a settled Turkish
population of the same race as the present inhabitants of
Bokhara. The name Turkmen
is confined to the nomads, as distinct from the settled
branches of the same race, who are styled Turks
distinctively, in Central Asia. When used here the latter
name is not to be confounded with the Osmanli Turks of
Stambul, who parted from the parent stock several hundred
years ago, and have been since separated from their
kinsmen in Central Asia by the interposition of Persia. During the reign
of Nadir Shah, who was himself of pure Turkmen
blood, the whole of Turkestan as far as Bokhara and Khiva acknowledged
his sovereignty. The then Turkish population of Merv merely
acknowledged his suzerainty by a tribute analogous to
some of the old feudal tenures in Europe, I believe by
the present of a nut or some fruit on stated occasions.
On the death of Nadir Shah,
the Persian monarchy rapidly decayed. Afghanistan fell
away, and the nomad Turkmen
of Khiva poured
into Persian Turkestan on the north-east, while Bokhara
attacked it from another quarter. About a hundred and
thirty years ago, the Tekkes,
the Saryk
and
Salor Turkmen, commenced then- invasion. The Akhal
Tekkes then got possession of the territory which they
still occupy, though not with its exact
Page
171 TURKMEN MIGRATIONS.
present
boundaries. In fact the war with Persia has been
practically continuous since, as has been pointed out in
former chapters, and it is only
within the last seventy years that Askabad was taken by
the Akhal Tekkes. Still, whatever variations the
Persian boundaries may have undergone, the Akhal
Tekkes have remained pretty steadily in the territory
they seized on after Nadir Shah's
death, and which has now passed under Russian sway with
its inhabitants. Their brethren, the present inhabitants
of Merv, had a
more chequered history. While the Akhal Tekkes
were establishing themselves along
the northeastern slopes of the Kopet Dagh mountains,
the former settled around the great swamps in which the Tejun is lost. The abundance
of water no doubt made this appear at first a most
desirable territory, but the unhealthy nature of the soil
proved a serious drawback. Then the waters did not rise
as usual, and for three years in succession there were
severe droughts. The Tekkes
consequently determined to abandon their abodes by the Tejun swamps, and about the
year 1884 they moved into the Persian territory at
Sarakhs. They held possession of Sarakhs and the
adjoining territory, nearly as far south as Seistan, for
about twenty-one years, or until shortly after the
accession of the present Shah of Persia.
While
the Tekkes
were occupying the western part of Turkestan, other nomad
tribes were pouring into the east of their settlements.
These were the Ersari,
who settled and remained along the banks of the Oxus at
and about Charjui, pronounced Charjow, and the Salor
and Saryk,
who pushed on to the Murgab. After their arrival there, Merv itself was
destroyed, and its Turkish inhabitants almost
exterminated by the power of Bokhara. The Bokharan
conqueror, Begge Jan, captured the then city of Merv, being the
third historic city that had existed under
TEKKE OCCUPATION OF
MERV. Page 171
the
name, after a prolonged resistance, and utterly destroyed
it. Seven hundred thousand persons are said to have
perished during the siege and subsequent slaughter, and
though the numbers are doubtless exaggerated somewhat, it
is evident from the ruins that remain that a dense
population must then have occupied the oasis, and have
been utterly swept away. The Bokharans did not occupy the
conquered country, and the Salor
and Saryk
Turkmen found no resistance there when they moved their aladjaks
close to the ruins of Merv. The fall of Merv took place
nearly a century ago, and from that time until the advent
of the present Shah to the throne of Persia the Salor
and Saryk
remained in undisturbed possession of its territory.
About twenty-six years ago, however, a general movement
took place among the Turkmen
tribes. The Persians attacked the Turkmen
possessors of Sarakhs, and, after a vigorous campaign,
compelled them to abandon their settlements. Seventy
thousand houses are said to have been destroyed in this
campaign. The dispossessed tribe in turn attacked their
kindred tribe, the Saryk,
and after several combats drove them out of Merv to positions
further south on the Murgab, which they still occupy, at
Yulatan and Penjdeh, higher up the river.
The
Tekkes
were not left long in undisputed possession of the Merv oasis. The
Persians, flushed with the success of their campaign
against the Turkmen
of Sarakhs, believed that they could easily follow them
to their new abodes, and bring Merv itself again
under their sway. The Saryk,
who had been expelled from their settlements by the Tekkes,
made common cause with the Persians, and three years
after the Tekke occupation of Merv the present
Shah attempted the conquest of the oasis. But the fortune
of war had changed. The Tekkes
defended their new settlement with a vigor which
appalled the Persians,
Page
172 PERSIAN DEFEAT - AN OLD PRISONER.
who
expected an easy victory from their artillery over an
enemy whom they had already driven from their own
frontiers. Kouchid Khan managed the campaign against the
Shah and his
Turkmen allies with consummate energy. After a three
months' harassing warfare in the desert, the allied army advanced
close to Merv, but only to be totally routed in a
pitched battle there. The entire Persian train of
thirty-six pieces of artillery fell into the hands of the
nomads, and the routed army fled in utter confusion to Meshed.
For weeks the victorious nomads were engaged in gathering
the arms and other spoils thrown away by the flying
troops of the Shah, and
the captured Persian guns still ornament the ramparts of
Merv. A number of officers of high rank were made
prisoners, and had to be ransomed afterwards at enormous
prices. Some of the ransoms were as high as six or seven
thousand pounds. Others were left to die in captivity for
want of means to meet the extortionate demands of their
captors. I met one of the prisoners, a colonel of
artillery, during my stay in Merv. His captivity
had lasted twenty-two years, and his beard was white as
snow, though when captured he told me he was quite a
young man. As I spoke with him I could not help feeling a
nervous apprehension of what might be my own fate among
the avaricious nomads, in whose power I was so
absolutely. The poor captive complained bitterly of the
neglect with which he had been treated by his wife and
family, who, he said, were living on his property in
luxury, and letting him drag out his life in captivity.
Up to the time of my departure he had not been released.
Since
the disastrous issue of Nasr Eddin Shah's campaign, the
Persians have made no open attempt on the independence of
Merv. Both
officers and soldiers have too vivid a recollection of
the horrors of the defeat to have any
SARYK - Salor
- ERSARI. Page 173
stomach for another trial
of strength with the fierce nomads. The Saryk of Penjdeh
still continue inveterate in their hostility to the
present inhabitants of Merv, but they are
unable to gratify their feelings in any more effectual
way than by plundering raids, which the
Merv Tekkes are not slow in reciprocating. Those of
the Saryk
who inhabit the districts nearest to Merv, which are
irrigated by the canals from the Bent-i-Yulatan, have
partially given up their enmity towards their neighbors;
but the clans higher up the river, towards the Afghan
frontier, are still irreconcilable with their foes. The Salor,
whose settlements lie between the Saryk and
Merv, have
submitted absolutely to the latter, and are treated by
the Khans as subjects. During my stay, a Persian envoy
endeavored to persuade them, by promises of pay and
protection, to migrate to Sarakhs in a body, but this
attempted movement was summarily put a stop to by the
orders of the Merv
Khans. The Tassaoul-bashis were sent out in hot haste to
arrest the chiefs, and, although no order had been
previously issued against then: moving anywhere, there
was a strong inclination at first to put them all to
death. When finally they were released, it was only with
strict orders not to attempt to quit the territory of Merv . These
Salor, however, are but a small part of the Salor tribe,
which is scattered all over Turkestan. Some of them are
found among the Saryk
close to Herat,
and a
still larger number among the Ersari. The Salor
in Merv only number seven hundred families, and are
associated with the Otamish tribe of Tekkes.
As for the
Ersari Turkmen, their long separation from
1.
During the
latter portion of my stay at Merv an attempt
was made by the Saryk
to enter into some kind of union with the Tekkes
for the purpose of better resisting the Russian
advance, but I am unaware whether any practical
result followed.the other Tekkes
has well-nigh obliterated any feeling about their
common origin. They depend rather on Bokhara, and
frequently
cross the desert to raid on the Merv Tekkes.
In numbers they are by no means equal to the
latter. A well-informed Turkmen,
who had been much among them, estimated their
numbers at seventy thousand.
Page
174 ERSARI.
the other
Tekkes has well-nigh obliterated any feeling about their
common origin. They depend rather on Bokhara, and
frequently cross the desert to raid on the Merv Tekkes.
In numbers they are by no means equal to the latter. A
well-informed Turcoman, who had been much among them,
estimated their numbers at seventy thousand.
I
have endeavored to give the history of the Tekkes,
as I learned it from the older men among the tribes, but
I do not pretend to vouch for its accuracy. In the
absence of better evidence, it may be of some use in
throwing light upon the vicissitudes of the tribes now
inhabiting the almost terra incognita of Central
Asia.
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